Weill Cornell Medicine Campus is Qatar. American universities have set up campuses around the globe and admit many international undergraduate and graduate students a year. This is a significant form of ‘soft’ power for the United States.
International Students Pre-World War II
An overlooked aspect of American imperialism is the recruitment and education of students from non-Christian countries. American missionary organizations were largely responsible for the presence of international students at American Universities in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Education was a primary means in which American missionaries spread Christianity in non-western countries (Bu 2001). They encouraged their students to obtain postsecondary education abroad in America where they could be exposed to Western culture, the English language, and Christianity. Some graduates would return to their native countries and teach English and religion, thus furthering the missionaries’ purposes.
The education of international students aligns with American imperialist ambitions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which included the annexation of Hawaii in 1898 (Seltzer 1979). However, the forced displacement of peoples inhabiting lands that compromise the now continental “United States” dates back to the beginning of the nation. “Manifest Destiny”, Longley argues, was justified with religious reasonings (Longley 2003).
Imperialist ambitions, even up to the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, were justified as doing “good” and “helping” others even when they were causing harm. During the Iraq war, there was much propaganda showcasing how American schools and educational settings were being established in Iraq, including revising Iraqi history textbooks**
The Christian missionary movement focused on non-Christian continents, primarily Africa and Asia and was driven by hubris. The real motive, however, behind the missionary movement was to increase global power and influence. The spreading of Christianity and the English language had ulterior motives in building trust, gaining allies, obtaining access to new economic markets and natural resources the country owned, typically resulting in an exploitive relationship.
American universities jumped on the chance to spread their influence abroad.
A 1906 article in The Yale Daily News sums up the mission of the “imperial university”:
“It should be a prime aim of every university to spread its character and influence over as broad a field as possible” (Yale as an International University 1906).
The article also boasted of its international student population with “86 men from foreign lands” compared to Harvard with “58 foreign students” (para. 2).
A 1916 article in The Vassar Miscenlly Weekly is devoted to the experiences of Vassar Christian Association’s representative, Fung Hin Liu, who returned to her homeland of China and was teaching the English language. She writes that
“A great surprise to me was the class of twelve girls who were being prepared for the high school next fall. They went to the primary school here. When they graduated from that the wives of the teachers and Chinese teachers tutored them[…] I am sending you some pictures of them so you may have something tangible to show to the girls at Vassar how their missionary contribution is spent.” (Liu 1916, para. 3).
Fung Hin Liu graduated from Wellesley in 1914 and returned to Canton Christian College with the intention to promote women’s education (Another “Impractical College Girl” 1916; Canton Christian College 1915). By 1913, there were 4,222 international students at American Universities (Bu 2001).
However, despite the glossy façade of student harmony that was portrayed in university publications, the experiences of international students at American Universities could be unpleasant. Non-European students often faced racial discrimination and quickly became disillusioned by the lack of “Christian love” they expected Americans to practice. Notably, Asian students faced a strong anti-Asian sentiment, due to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882.
Non-European students also had financial difficulties as few scholarships were available for international students. Scholarships that were awarded to international students appeared to favor students of western European origins (60 Harvard International Scholarships Made 1930; Foreign Scholarship Applications Opened to American Citizens 1929; Foreign Scholarships 1915). These negative experiences of international students, which they sometimes vocalized, threatened the American missionary movement.
By the early 20th century, missionary organizations were working to improve the situation for international students at US universities
Many of these efforts focused on Chinese students. In the aftermath of the 1911 Revolution, China became a republic and was viewed as a new “frontier” for spreading Christian beliefs. In 1911, John R. Mott, who led the World Christian Students Federation and the YMCA International Committee, raised money to form the Committee for the Friendly Relations Among Foreign Students. The Committee’s aim was to assist the social, intellectual, and spiritual life of international students, with a particular focus on Chinese Students (Bu 2001). The Committee worked with local YMCAs and the Cosmopolitan Club (a secular student organization that discussed international relations) to bring international and American students together. The Committee also laid the groundwork for the development of the National Association for Foreign Student Affairs (NAFSA) (Bu 2001). The Chinese Students’ Christian Association was another support to assist students to assimilate to American culture.
After World War I, American universities received a greater influx of international students, particularly from Europe which had been ravaged by the war. Educational exchange and fellowships for international students were increasingly offered with the intent to increase cultural cooperation and world peace. American missionary organizations again saw this as an opportunity to learn and spread Christian teachings. Recruiting women students was of particular interest to the committee. YMCA summer conferences were instrumental in converting many young men and women to Christianity (Bu 2001). However, college students from Asia faced isolation and formed their own on-campus organizations. For example, Chinese students at Stanford established a Chinese Student’s Club in 1911 (Chinese Students’ Club Organized 1911; Chinese Students to Meet on Campus for Annual Session 1928).
The Cornell University Chinese Students’ Club, 1937
By the 1930s, international students began to challenge missionaries and American politics and culture. There were over 10, 000 international students in higher education in the U.S. (Survey Shows Large Number Foreign Students In U. S. 1932). Rather than the equality and liberty that missionaries preached, students faced racism and ostracization. Asian students began denouncing the white supremacy occurring in their homeland, America’s immigration policies, and America’s imperialist expansion. Latin students criticized America’s imperialist tendencies and commercial motives for international “friendship”, particularly related to the Panama Canal.
European students criticized America’s refusal to enter the League of Nations (predecessor of the United Nations). Global political tension also resulted in more nationalism, and divisions among students based on country emerged. By the late 1930s, it was a literal “zone of conflict” between international students (Bu 2001). The Committee became increasingly less effective until 1947 when is stopped sponsoring international students, transferring them to the United Student Christian Council.
International Students in the mid to Late 20th Century
There were significant changes in immigration policy after World War II, which increased the number of and changed the composition of international college students, faculty, and staff. In the early 20th century, there was strong antipathy towards South Asian immigration The Immigration act of 1917 excluded about 500 million people from Asia. Alien Land Laws barred South Asian land ownership or leasing in many western states in the United States. A 1923 Supreme Court ruling called Bhagat Singh Third ruled that South Asians were ineligible for naturalized U.S. citizenship. However, a warming of relations during World War II, based on India’s and the U.S.’s military alliance, resulted in support for Indian immigration (Lee 2015). The Luce-Cellar Act of 1946 allowed for South Asians to apply to become U.S. citizens, though the quota was 100 people a year. In other words, Indian immigration was effectively barred, pre-1960.
University of Kishinev (Soviet Union) student ‘exchange’ at Lafayette University in April 1989.
The Civil Rights movement inspired the end of discriminatory origin quotas. The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act was a transformative immigration law that had a profound effect on Asian American immigration. The Act prohibited discrimination based on race, sex, nationality, place of birth, or residence. The new system instead focused on professional status and family reunification. However, limits on total immigration per year were established, which resulted in some undocumented immigrant migration. Another consequence of the 1965 act was an increasing number of Asian immigrants, particularly from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (Lee 2015). Asian immigrants, particularly Indian immigrants, typically did not have family residing in the U.S. so they relied on professional status. Immigration under professional status required exceptional job ability, so the population of immigrants tended to be in highly skilled professionals like physicians, engineers, and scientists (Lobo and Salvo 1998). The Immigration Act of 1990 increased the number of permanent work-based visas as well as for family re-unification.
International students still contended with isolation on campus. However, there was increased awareness of issues facing international students. Lack of university support and policy, financial support, and isolation were paramount. Chinese students at Stanford felt isolated from their peers at Stanford, and the Chinese student club, which had been established for 40 years already, was considered to be ineffective in providing socialization and support (Gasiorkiewicz 1968). Students at Yale complained about lack of housing and lack of university policy and support regarding international students’ issues (Foreign Students Point To Housing Problems 1962; University’s Role Foreign Students 1961). International students, then 3% of undergraduates at Cornell mentioned lack of financial aid (Keller 1974).
Conclusion
Within the next few decades, international student enrollment at all levels of US college and universities would increase rapidly. STEM fields particularly experienced increase enrollment of international postdocs and graduate students. This would give US university system unprecedented international influence. This posed new opportunities and challenges which will be explored in later posts.
References
“60 Harvard International Scholarships Made.” 1930. The Cornell Daily Sun.
“Another ‘Impractical College Girl.’” 1916. Vassar Quarterly: 49–50.
Bu, Liping. 2001. “The Challenge of Race Relations: American Ecumenism and Foreign Student Nationalism, 1900–1940.” Journal of American Studies 35(2): 217–37.
“Canton Christian College.” 1915. The Vassar Miscellany: 6.
“Chinese Students’ Club Organized.” 1911. The Stanford Daily: 1.
“Chinese Students to Meet on Campus for Annual Session.” 1928. The Stanford Daily.
“Foreign Scholarship Applications Opened to American Citizens.” 1929. The Stanford Daily: 3.
“Foreign Scholarships.” 1915. The College News: 1.
“Foreign Students Point To Housing Problems.” 1962. The Yale Daily News: 1,3. .
Gasiorkiewicz, Sue. 1968. “Chinese Students’ Problem: Isolation.” The Stanford Daily: 5.
Keller, Richard. 1974. “Foreign Students Confront Limited Financial Support.” The Cornell Daily Sun: 1,3.
Lee, Erika. 2015. “Legacies of the 1965 Immigration Act.” South Asian American Digital Archive. https://www.saada.org/tides (June 16, 2021).
Liu, Fung Hin. 1916. “From China to Vassar.” The Vassar Miscellany: 8.
Lobo, Arun Peter, and Joseph J. Salvo. 1998. “Changing U.S. Immigration Law and the Occupational Selectivity of Asian Immigrants.” International Migration Review 32(3): 737–60.
Longley, Clifford. 2003. “The Religious Roots of American Imperialism.” Global Dialogue 5(1/2): 32–41.
Seltzer, Rick. 1979. “An Analysis of the Empirical Evidence on the Origins of American Imperialism: 1871-1900.” Review of Radical Political Economics 11(4): 102–11.
“Survey Shows Large Number Foreign Students In U. S.” 1932. The Cornell Daily
“University’s Role Foreign Students.” 1961. The Yale Daily News.
“Yale as an International University.” 1906. The Yale Daily News: 2.
Thanks for sharing these insights, particularly the portion about Indian immigration. My Ajja is Indian and he came to the US to study engineering in the 60’s and you described him to a T.
Wow, this was fascinating to read.
The way you trace the link between missionary education, international students, and the expansion of American influence adds a really important layer to how we understand “soft power.”
I was especially struck by the tension you show between the rhetoric of cultural exchange and the realities many students experienced -- racism, isolation, and political disillusionment. That contrast says a lot about how imperial narratives sustain themselves.
Thank you for pulling together the historical threads so clearly.